Understanding White Supremacy

Understanding White Supremacy Historically, white supremacy has been understood as the belief that white people are superior to people of color. As such, white supremacy was the ideological driver of the European colonial projects and U.S. imperial projects: it was used to  rationalize unjust rule of people and lands, theft of land and resources, enslavement, and genocide. During these early periods and practices, white supremacy was backed by misguided scientific studies of physical differences on the basis of race and was also believed to take intellectual and cultural form. White Supremacy in US History The system of white supremacy was brought to the Americas by European colonists and took firm root in early U.S. society through the genocide, enslavement, and internal colonization of indigenous populations, and the enslavement of Africans and their descendants. The system of slavery in the U.S., the Black Codes that limited rights among newly freed blacks that were instituted following emancipation, and the Jim Crow laws that enforced segregation and also limited rights combined to make the U.S. a legalized white supremacist society through the late-1960s. During this period the Ku Klux Klan became a well-known symbol of white supremacy, as have other major historical actors and events, like the Nazis and the Jewish Holocaust, the apartheid regime of South Africa, and Neo-Nazi and white power groups today. As a result of the notoriety of these groups, events, and time periods, many people think of white supremacy as an overtly hateful and violent attitude toward people of color, which is considered a problem mostly buried in the past. But as the recent racist murder of nine Black people at Emanuel AME church has made clear, the hateful and violent breed of white supremacy is still very much a part of our present. Yet, it is important to recognize that white supremacy today is a multifaceted system that manifests in myriad ways, many not overtly hateful nor violent- in fact often quite subtle and unseen. This is the case today because U.S. society was founded, organized, and developed in a white supremacist context. White supremacy and the many forms of racism it employs is infused into our social structure, our institutions, our worldviews, beliefs, knowledge, and ways of interacting with each other. Its even encoded into some of our holidays, like Columbus Day, which celebrates a racist perpetrator of genocide. Structural Racism and White Supremacy The white supremacy of our society is evident in the fact that whites maintain a structural advantage over people of color in nearly every aspect of life. White people maintain an educational advantage, an income advantage, a wealth advantage, and a political advantage. White supremacy is also evident in the way communities of color are systematically over-policed (in terms of unjust harassment and unlawful arrest and brutalization), and under-policed (in terms of police failing to serve and protect); and in the way that experiencing racism takes a societal-wide negative toll on the life expectancy of Black people. These trends and the white supremacy they express are fueled by the false belief that society is fair and just, that success is the result of hard work alone, and an overall denial of the many privileges that whites in the U.S. have relative to others. Further, these structural trends are fostered by the white supremacy that lives within us, though we may be wholly unaware that it is there. Both conscious and subconscious white supremacist beliefs are visible in social patterns that show, for instance, that university professors give more attention to potential students who are white; that many people regardless of race believe that lighter skinned Black people are smarter than those with dark skin; and that teachers punish Black students more harshly for the same or even lesser offenses committed by white students. So while white supremacy might look and sound different than it has in centuries past, and may be experienced differently by people of color, it is very much a twenty-first-century phenomenon that must be addressed through critical self-reflection, the rejection of white privilege, and anti-racist activism. Further Reading For detailed and riveting historical accounts of how white supremacy was wielded in pursuit of economic, political, cultural, and social domination by Europeans from the 1500s on, see  The World is a Ghetto  by sociologist Howard Winant, and  Orientalism  by postcolonial theorist  Edward Said.For information on how white supremacy historically affected indigenous populations, Mexicans and Mexican Americans, as well as immigrants from Asia, see sociologist Toms Almaguers book  Racial Fault Lines:  The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California.Sociologist Eduardo Bonilla-Silva investigates this phenomenon at length in his book  White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era

Alcohol Proof Definition and Examples

Alcohol Proof Definition and Examples Grain alcohol or spirits may be labeled using proof rather than percent alcohol. Heres what proof means and an explanation of why its used and how its determined. Alcohol  Proof Definition Alcohol proof is twice the  volume  percentage of  ethyl alcohol  (ethanol) in an alcoholic beverage. It is a measure of the ethanol (a specific type of alcohol) content of an alcoholic beverage. The term originated in the United Kingdom and was defined as 7/4 the alcohol by volume (ABV). However, the UK now uses ABV as the standard to express alcohol concentration, rather than the original definition of proof. In the United States, the modern definition of alcohol proof is twice the percentage of ABV. Alcohol Proof Example:  An alcoholic beverage that is 40%  ethyl alcohol  by volume is referred to as being 80 proof. 100-proof whiskey is 50% alcohol by volume. 86-proof whiskey is 43% alcohol by volume. Pure alcohol or absolute alcohol is 200 proof. However, because alcohol and water form an azeotropic mixture, this purity level cannot be obtained using simple distillation. Determining ABV Since ABV is the basis for calculated alcohol proof, its useful to know how alcohol by volume is determined. There are two methods: measuring alcohol by volume and measuring alcohol by mass. The mass determination does not depend on temperature, but the more common percent (%) of total volume is temperature dependent. The International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) requires volume percent (v/v%) measurements be performed at 20  Ã‚ °C (68  Ã‚ °F). Countries belonging to the European Union may measure ABV using either mass percent or volume percent. The United States measures alcohol content in terms of alcohol percent by volume. The percentage of alcohol by volume must be labelled, although most liquors also state proof. Alcohol content may vary within 0.15% of ABV stated on the label, for spirits containing no solids and over 100 ml in volume. Officially, Canada uses US labeling stating percent alcohol by volume, although the UK proof standard may still be seen and heard. Common spirits at 40% ABV are called 70 ° proof, while 57% ABV is 100 proof. Over-proof rum is rum containing greater than 57% ABV or exceeding 100 ° UK proof. Older Versions of Proof The UK used to measure alcohol content using proof spirit. The term came from the 16th century when British sailors were given rations of rum. In order to demonstrate the rum hadnt been watered down, it was proved by covering it with gunpowder and igniting it. If the rum didnt burn, it contained too much water and was under proof, while if it burned, this meant at least 57.17% ABV was present. Rum with this alcohol percentage was defined to be 100 ° or one hundred degrees proof. In 1816, the specific gravity test replaced the gunpowder test. Until January 1, 1980, the UK measured alcohol content using proof spirit, which was equivalent to 57.15% ABV and defined to be spirit with a specific gravity 12/13 that of water or 923 kg/m3. Reference Jensen, William.  The Origin of Alcohol Proof(PDF). Retrieved November 10, 2015.